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textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4 [2025-03-13 15:29]
Merja Herzig 		textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4 [2025-08-28 14:18] (current)
Merja Herzig
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 ====== 4. Radionuclides ====== ====== 4. Radionuclides ======
 Chapter 4 from //BASICS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND OF RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT – An open-access textbook for nuclear and radiochemistry students// by Jukka Lehto Chapter 4 from //BASICS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND OF RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT – An open-access textbook for nuclear and radiochemistry students// by Jukka Lehto
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 +{{anchor:primordial_radionuclides}}
 ===== 4.1. Primordial radionuclides ===== ===== 4.1. Primordial radionuclides =====
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 Primordial (primary) radionuclides, as well as other elements, were formed in the nuclear reactions following the creation of the universe and they have been present in the earth ever since of its birth some 4.5 billion years ago. Due to the high flux of energetic protons and alpha particles, a great number of heavy elements were created in these nuclear reactions. Those elements and nuclides with considerably shorter half-life than the age of the Earth have already decayed away and only those with half-lives comparable with the age of the Earth still exist. These primordial radionuclides can be classified into two cathegories: Primordial (primary) radionuclides, as well as other elements, were formed in the nuclear reactions following the creation of the universe and they have been present in the earth ever since of its birth some 4.5 billion years ago. Due to the high flux of energetic protons and alpha particles, a great number of heavy elements were created in these nuclear reactions. Those elements and nuclides with considerably shorter half-life than the age of the Earth have already decayed away and only those with half-lives comparable with the age of the Earth still exist. These primordial radionuclides can be classified into two cathegories:
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 +{{anchor:long_lived_radionuclides}}
  
   * Parent nuclides of natural [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4#decay_chains2|decay chains]], <sup>238</sup>U, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>232</sup>Th   * Parent nuclides of natural [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4#decay_chains2|decay chains]], <sup>238</sup>U, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>232</sup>Th
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 The three [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4#table_41|primordial radionuclides]] <sup>238</sup>U, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>232</sup>Th are parent nuclides in decay chains, which end up through several [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter5#alpha|alpha]] and [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter5#beta|beta]] decays to stable lead isotopes. In between there are a number of radionuclides of twelve elements. The [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter6#half_life|half-life]] of <sup>238</sup>U is 4.5·10<sup>9</sup> y and it starts a series with 17 radionuclides and the <sup>206</sup>Pb [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter2#isotope|isotope]] is the terminal product (Figure IV.1.) This decay chain is called uranium series and as the [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter2#mass_number|mass numbers]] of the product are divided by four the balance is two. The three [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter4#table_41|primordial radionuclides]] <sup>238</sup>U, <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>232</sup>Th are parent nuclides in decay chains, which end up through several [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter5#alpha|alpha]] and [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter5#beta|beta]] decays to stable lead isotopes. In between there are a number of radionuclides of twelve elements. The [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter6#half_life|half-life]] of <sup>238</sup>U is 4.5·10<sup>9</sup> y and it starts a series with 17 radionuclides and the <sup>206</sup>Pb [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter2#isotope|isotope]] is the terminal product (Figure IV.1.) This decay chain is called uranium series and as the [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter2#mass_number|mass numbers]] of the product are divided by four the balance is two.
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 +{{anchor:uranium_chain}}
  
 +{{:textbook:nrctextbook:u_238_decay_series_n3.png?400|}}
  
-{{:textbook:nrctextbook:uranium_decay_chain_fig_4_1.png?400|}} +Figure IV.1. The uranium decay chain, A = 4n+2. 
- +
-Figure IV.1. The uranium decay chain, A = 4n+2 (http://www2.ocean.washington.edu/oc540/lec01-17/).+
  
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 +{{anchor:actinium_chain}}
 +{{:textbook:nrctextbook:u_235_decay_chain_n3.png?400|}}
  
-{{:textbook:nrctextbook:actinium_decay_chain_fig_4_2.png?400|}}+Figure IV.2. The actinium decay chain, A = 4n+3. 
  
-Figure IV.2. The actinium decay chain, A = 4n+3  
-(http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/ees/lithosphere/labs/lab12/U_decay.gif). 
  
 {{anchor:thorium}} {{anchor:thorium}}
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 +{{anchor:thorium_chain}}
 +{{:textbook:nrctextbook:th_232_decay_chain_n3.png?400|}}
  
-{{:textbook:nrctextbook:thorium_decay_chain_fig_4_3.png?400|}} +Figure IV.3. The thorium decay chain, A = 4n.
- +
-Figure IV.3. The thorium decay chain, A = 4n (http://www2.ocean.washington.edu/oc540/lec01-17/).+
  
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 +{{anchor:nuclear_power_accidents}}
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 There have been, however, three major accidents in nuclear power plants resulting in a large release of radionuclides into the environment. The first one occurred in 1979 in Harrisburg, USA, but only noble gases and other gaseous radionuclides were released from the damaged reactor and no long-term contamination of the surrounding area took place. The second and the largest accident took place in Chernobyl, Ukraine, where a power reactor exploded and caught fire in 1986. This accident caused a severe environmental contamination, not only in Ukraine, Belorussia and Russia,  There have been, however, three major accidents in nuclear power plants resulting in a large release of radionuclides into the environment. The first one occurred in 1979 in Harrisburg, USA, but only noble gases and other gaseous radionuclides were released from the damaged reactor and no long-term contamination of the surrounding area took place. The second and the largest accident took place in Chernobyl, Ukraine, where a power reactor exploded and caught fire in 1986. This accident caused a severe environmental contamination, not only in Ukraine, Belorussia and Russia, 
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-A wide range of radionuclides for research and medical use are being produced in reactors and accelerators. After use, they are mainly either aged or released into the environment. Some of the most important radionuclides used in medical and biosciences and in clinical use are listed in Table IV.III.+A wide range of radionuclides for research and medical use are being produced in [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter16#radionuclide_production_reactors|reactors]] and [[textbook:nrctextbook:chapter16|accelerators]]. After use, they are mainly either aged or released into the environment. Some of the most important radionuclides used in medical and biosciences and in clinical use are listed in Table IV.III.
  
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textbook/nrctextbook/chapter4.1741876173.txt.gz · Last modified: 2025-03-13 15:29 by Merja Herzig

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